Where, if anywhere, in the Qur'an does it say that non-believers must be killed? In what context?

The notion that the Qur'an commands the killing of non-believers is often misunderstood due to the misinterpretation of certain verses taken out of context. Here are some key points and verses that are frequently cited:

Surah 2:191

This verse is often quoted as "And kill them wherever you find them." However, when read in context, it becomes clear that this command is related to a specific historical situation. The verse is part of a passage that discusses the permission for Muslims to defend themselves against persecution. The context provided by surrounding verses (2:190-193) indicates that this permission is for defensive war, and it emphasizes that fighting should stop if the aggressors cease their hostilities. The term "fitnah" in this context is better translated as "persecution" or "sedition" rather than "disbelief"13.

Surah 9:5 (The Sword Verse)

This verse states, "But when the forbidden months are past, then fight and slay the Pagans wherever ye find them, and take them prisoners, and beleaguer them, and lie in wait for them at every place of ambush." However, this verse is also context-specific. It was revealed after the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was broken by certain tribes, and it refers specifically to those who continued hostilities against the Muslims despite previous agreements. The verse also provides that if these enemies repent, establish regular prayers, and practice regular charity, then Muslims should cease military action against them234.

Historical Context

Both of these verses are rooted in historical events where Muslims were under attack or persecution. The command to fight was given in the context of self-defense and responding to aggression, not as a general command to kill non-believers indiscriminately. The Quran emphasizes forgiveness and mercy if the enemies cease their aggression23.

In summary, the verses often cited to suggest that the Quran commands the killing of non-believers are actually about defensive warfare and responding to specific historical aggressions, rather than advocating for the indiscriminate killing of non-believers. When read in their full context, these verses emphasize the importance of stopping hostilities if the enemy ceases their aggression and the value of forgiveness and mercy.